Born: 20 July 356 BCE.
Died: 10 June 323 BCE.
Alexander the Great was a Macedonian King who is widely considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. In the space of only thirteen years, he conquered the Persian Empire and spread Greek culture to the borders of India. Although his empire did not survive his death, his achievements ushered in the Hellenistic Age whereby the east and west were brought together in commerce and Greek culture permeated throughout the lands he conquered. Ultimately, Alexander left an indelible impression on subsequent military commanders, from Julius Caesar to Napoleon Bonaparte.
Historical Background
Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias. Born in 356 BCE at Pella, he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and served as regent during Philip’s attack on Byzantium in 340 BCE. He later fought at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE and came to the throne in 336 BCE following the assassination of Philip II. After putting down a revolt by Thebes, Alexander invaded the Persian Empire in 334 BCE and defeated the Persians in three battles at Granicus (334 BCE), Issus (333 BCE), and Gaugamela (331 BCE) before becoming Emperor of Persia by conquest. Following the death of Darius III in 330 BCE, Alexander subjugated Persian territories in Sogdiana and Bactria and married a Bactrian princess named Roxana before invading India in 326 BCE. After defeating the Indian king Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes, his army mutinied and refused to go any further. Alexander marched back towards Babylon where he made plans to invade Arabia and North Africa before dying of a fever in 323 BCE at the age of 32.
Historical Influences
Alexander was influenced by his parents, Philip, and Olympias. From an early age, Alexander was told by his mother that he was descended from the gods and heroes from the Heroic Age of Greek history. Indeed, Alexander kept a copy of the Iliad underneath his pillow during his campaigns. While his father, Philip was often away on military campaigns, he gave Alexander the best education that money could buy with the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) as his teacher. Aristotle taught the young Alexander philosophy, music, logic and Greek culture with the “teachings of Aristotle [would later aid] him in the treatment of his new subjects in the empires he invaded and conquered, allowing him to admire and maintain these disparate cultures" (Owen & Gordon, 2021). Along with education, Alexander was given command of the Macedonian army by his father with the core force being made up of Phalanx Pikemen and Companion Cavalry.
Key Battle
Alexander’s signature battle was the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE). At Gaugamela, Alexander fought against the Persians under Darius III and won by advancing obliquely towards the Persian left-wing causing Bessus, the Persian commander on that wing, to extend his line. This left a gap in the Persian centre, where Darius III was situated. Alexander exploited this by charging with his Companion cavalry, hypaspists and phalanx straight towards Darius himself. Darius fled, and the Persian army subsequently disintegrated, although Alexander had to turn back from his pursuit of Darius to help Parmenion from being overwhelmed by the Persian right wing.
Historical Significance
Alexander the Great left behind a remarkable legacy. In a short space of time, he conquered an area stretching from Greece and Egypt in the west to Afghanistan and India in the east. Wherever he went, Alexander founded cities named after himself with Alexandria in Egypt being the most famous. Although his empire did not survive his death and was fought over between his generals in the Wars of the Diadochi, his accomplishments lived on in the minds of history’s most famous military commanders. Julius Caesar wanted to emulate Alexander by invading the Parthian Empire before his assassination in 44 BCE while Napoleon Bonaparte ranked Alexander as the greatest general who ever lived on his list of great military commanders. Ultimately, Alexander’s conquests opened new horizons, with his successors encountering different peoples and cultures with trade routes being established between Asia and the Mediterranean during the Hellenistic Age and the Roman Empire.
Bibliography
Anonymous. “Alexander and Bucephalus - Battle of Issus mosaic - Museo Archeologico Nazionale - Naples BW.” Wikimedia Commons. Last revised March 5, 2015. www.commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg
Black, Jeremy. World History Atlas: Mapping the Human Journey. London, Dorling Kindersley, 2005.
Grant, R.G. Commanders: History’s Greatest Military Leaders. London, Dorling Kindersley, 2010.
Jarus, Owen. & Gordon, Jonathan. “Alexander the Great: Facts, biography and accomplishments.” Live Science. Last revised November 9, 2021. www.livescience.com/39997-alexander-the-great.html
Regan, Geoffrey. Battles That Changed History: Fifty Decisive Battles Spanning Over 2,500 Years of Warfare. London, Andre Deutsch, 2002.
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