Born: 15 August 1769.
Died: 5 May 1821.
Napoleon Bonaparte is undoubtedly one of the greatest and most famous generals in history. He conducted over fifty battles, a large proportion of which he won. Indeed, the name Napoleon has become a byword for successful generalship and military genius. Ultimately, the legend he inspired, along with his liberal reforms to Europe’s laws, would make Napoleon one of the most influential men in history.
Historical Background
Napoleon was born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica on 15 August 1769 to Carlo and Maria Letizia Ramolino Bonaparte. In 1779, Napoleon was sent to a military academy before being commissioned as an artillery officer in the French army in 1785. In 1796, he married Josephine de Beauharnais and campaigned in northern Italy before invading Egypt in 1798. In 1799, he returned to France and declared himself First Consul before defeating the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo in 1800. In 1804, he declared himself Emperor of the French and defeated Austria and Russia at the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz in 1805. Between 1806 and 1809, Napoleon defeated Prussia (1806), Russia (1807) and Austria (1809), thereby gaining mastery of Europe. In 1810, he divorced Josephine and made a dynastic marriage to Marie-Louise, Archduchess of Austria, by which they had a son, Napoleon II, in 1811. In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with an army of 600,000 men, losing most of it to the Russian winter. This contributed to his downfall, for after being defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, Napoleon abdicated in 1814 and was exiled to Elba with a personal guard of 1,000 men. He made one last bid for power in 1815 before being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, after which he was exiled to St. Helena, where he died on 5 May 1821 at 52 years old.
Historical Influences
Napoleon was influenced by Plutarch, Romanticism, and his belief in destiny. During the late eighteenth century, the study of Greco-Roman historian Plutarch’s biographies of Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Brutus and Cicero inspired a cult of heroes to emulate in France. Napoleon was also inspired by the Romantic movement (1775-1820) and was a patron of the arts, stating in 1794 that “music is the soul of love, the sweetness of life, the consolation of sorrows and the companion of innocence” (Zamoyski, 2018, p.80). Finally, Napoleon believed that he was destined for greatness and was following in the footsteps of Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. This can be traced back to his childhood in Corsica, where pagan myths and atavisms were thinly veiled under a semblance of Christianity. As pointed out by Adam Zamoyski, “A profound belief in destiny overrode the Christian vision of salvation” (Zamoyski, 2018, p.10). Because of his deep emotional attachment to Corsica and his experience at the military academy, Napoleon had a sense of social inferiority and sought to claim for himself a status distinct from his fellow cadets.
Key Battle
While he is most famous for his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon’s tactical masterpiece was the Battle of Austerlitz (1805). At Austerlitz, Napoleon deliberately left his right wing weak to entice an Austrian-Russian attack. As his enemies transferred more troops towards his weak right wing, Napoleon ordered his centre onto the Pratzen Heights, where he attacked the allies in the flank and rear. This brilliant manoeuvre effectively split the Austro-Russian army in two. The Allied soldiers who tried to escape Napoleon’s French soldiers drowned in the lakes as his artillery broke the ice underneath them. With this victory, Napoleon effectively gained dominance in Europe until his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812.
Historical Significance
In his 1965 book Napoleon and the Awakening of Europe, Professor Felix Markham stated that “Historians of Napoleon are apt either to be fascinated into adulation by his personality or repelled by the spectacle of the millions of lives sacrificed to his ambition” (Fremont-Barnes, 2010, p.58). As a strategist, Napoleon had few equals, with many campaigns fought between 1796 and 1809 being short affairs in which he sought to outmanoeuvre his opponents and bring them to battle in the place and time of his choosing. His dramatic rise to power was also exceptional, rising from the rank of a mere captain to de facto ruler of France in just thirteen years. However, despite establishing a legal code that persists in many European countries today, his economic blockade of Britain proved counter-productive and harmed the French economy, alienating many people within the French Empire whose livelihoods were affected by the embargo. In addition, his invasions of Spain (1808) and Russia (1812) sapped his army’s strength, which could have been needed elsewhere. Nevertheless, the domestic popularity he enjoyed helped contribute to his achievements, with the Duke of Wellington later stating, “I have often said that I considered Napoleon’s presence on the field to be equal to 40,000 men” (Grant, 2010, p.199).
Bibliography
David, Jacques-Louis. “Napoleon at the Great St. Bernard.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Last revised March 12, 2015. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. Napoleon Bonaparte. Oxford, Osprey Publishing, 2010.
Grant, R.G. Commanders: History’s Greatest Military Leaders. London, Dorling Kindersley, 2010.
Zamoyski, Adam. Napoleon: The Man Behind the Myth. London, William Collins, 2018.