The Pursuit of Happiness in Gorgias.

School of Athens by Raphael.

In Plato’s dialogue Gorgias, Socrates and Callicles debate whether indulgence or self-discipline leads to real happiness. Socrates argues that self-control and moderation of pleasure lead to a harmonious mind and body. In contrast, Callicles argues that uninhibited pleasure leads to a fulfilling life and that Socrates recommends a life no better than that of a stone or a corpse. In this essay, I will argue that both Socrates' and Callicles' viewpoints have merit and provide insight into the nature of happiness.

In Gorgias, Socrates states that “every man is his own ruler…one who is temperate and self-mastering, ruler of pleasures and desires that are in himself” (Pl. Gorg. 491). Callicles refutes this and says that people “should let their desires be as strong as possible and not chasten them, and should be able to minister to them…and satisfy each appetite in turn what it desires” (Pl. Gorg. 491-492). In my opinion, Callicles’ objection to Socrates’ emphasis on self-control has some truth to it. While self-control can be helpful in certain circumstances, it can also lead to the suppression of basic needs and desires. In Analytical Psychology, Carl Jung called this aspect of the psyche the Shadow, which consists of all that is unacceptable, suppressed and repressed based on life experiences and human interactions. As explained by Christopher Perry, “it is necessary to emphasise that positive, loving feelings, fantasies and impulses can become as much part of the shadow as negative, hostile ones” (Perry, 2015). Jung saw that the failure to integrate the Shadow is one of the root problems that leads to conflict between individuals and society and that assimilating and acknowledging the Shadow leads to self-acceptance and healing.

Callicles’ viewpoint that pursuing pleasure leads to a happy life parallels the later philosophy of Epicureanism. In his philosophy, Epicurus defined pleasure as the experience of happiness and the elimination of mental and physical pain. He also taught that “wisdom was the greatest virtue, for through it we could learn which pleasures to seek and which to avoid” (Stokes, 2010, p.29). In other words, some pleasures are pure and noble, while others are base and degrading. In Not In His Image, John Lamb Lash states that “the suppression of ecstasy and condemnation of pleasure by patriarchal religion have left us in a deep, festering morass. The pleasures people seek in modern times are superficial, venal, and corrupt” (Lash, 2006, p.331). In my opinion, the superficial, venal, corrupt pleasures that Lash describes include alcohol, drugs, and pornography because they appeal to our lower impulses rather than to our higher nature and lead to the degradation of the individual and society. In contrast, higher pleasures uplift the human spirit and enhance the person’s capacity for beauty, love and joy. Higher pleasures, such as music, nature and activities one enjoys, are essential for our species because we heal, learn, and love through them.

In addition, Callicles’ statement that the weak seek to wrest power from the strong parallels Friedrich Nietzsche’s concept of slave morality and master morality. According to Nietzsche, the weak were driven by envy of the nobles, and morality was used to wrest power from them by building a picture of a universe with a God who values compassion and kindness. The weak promoted generosity and care, not because they directly valued such things, but to deny the strong their power (Harrison, 2020, p.8). In other words, the weak use slave morality to control people, while those who practice master morality are free to choose their own moral values to live by based on their authority and experience. As Nietzsche declared in Thus Spoke Zarathustra:

   “I teach you the Superman. Man is something that should be overcome. What have you done to overcome him? All creatures hitherto have created something beyond themselves: and do you want to be the ebb of this great tide, and return to the animals rather than overcome man?” (Nietzsche, 2003, p.41).

According to Gerald Harrison’s interpretation of Nietzsche, the Superman sets his own rules and standards, achieving mastery over himself and life (Harrison, 2020, p.10). In Hermetic philosophy, everything is governed by the Law of Cause and Effect. While many people are subject to the wills and desires of others, certain people can rise above this and dominate their inner and outer circumstances to rise above the ordinary plane of Cause and Effect. As The Kybalion explains, “the Masters, rising to the plane above, dominate their moods, characters, qualities, and powers, as well as the environment surrounding them, and become Movers instead of pawns” (Three Initiates, 2012, p.20-21). In other words, they help to play the game of life by becoming causes instead of effects.

In Gorgias, Socrates states that musicians “enumerate the best things in life, - “first health, then beauty, and thirdly…wealth got without guile” (Pl. Gorg. 451). This raises an important point regarding the ancient philosophical view on the nature of goodness. In The Secret Teachings of All Ages, Manly P. Hall wrote, “Harmony is a state recognized by great philosophers as the immediate prerequisite of beauty” (Hall, 2007, p.215). Hall explains that what is good “perforce must act in conformity with its own nature; and good acting according to its own nature is harmony, because the good which it accomplishes is harmonious with the good that it is” (Hall, 2007, p.215). In other words, beauty is harmony manifesting its intrinsic goodness in the world of form. Following Socrates’ statement, health and beauty arise from a harmonious body and mind, while wealth comes from a feeling of abundance. All three aspects contribute to an individual's happiness.

Socrates also extols several virtues that he believes are the features of goodness. These virtues include justice, courage and piety, which "anyone…who desires to be happy must ensure and practice temperance, and flee from licentiousness” (Pl. Gorg. 507). He also explains how heaven and earth, gods and men, are governed by love and friendship, which is why the universe exemplifies order (Pl. Gorg. 508). As mentioned in the previous paragraph, this state of order is manifested through beauty and harmony, which manifests our capacity for love and higher pleasures. Indeed, scientific studies have shown that when we experience love and empathy, the pleasure centres in our brains are activated. To quote Riane Eisler and Douglas Fry, “Love triggers neurochemical messages of well-being and pleasure. Our bodies give us these rewards when we are loved and when we love others, whether it is a child, a lover, a parent, a friend, or even a pet” (Eisler & Fry, 2019, p.44). In other words, love and pleasure are inextricably linked, and this is where Socrates’ and Callicles’ viewpoints converge perfectly. In conclusion, there should be a balance between self-control and the pursuit of pleasure because while too much self-control can lead to repressing our desires and needs, we also need to cultivate wisdom regarding which pleasures are beneficial to the soul and which pleasures are merely lower impulses.

In Gorgias, Socrates and Callicles offer competing views regarding the path to true happiness. On one hand, Socrates argues that physical and mental self-mastery leads to a more harmonious individual. On the other hand, Callicles argues that pursuing what one enjoys is more profitable and that Socrates’ viewpoint makes a person static physically and mentally. In my opinion, both views have validity, and there should be a balance between enjoyment and self-control to achieve a state of happiness and harmony.

Bibliography

Eisler, Riane. & Fry, Douglas P. Nurturing Our Humanity: How Domination and Partnership Shape Our Brains, Lives, and Future. New York, Oxford University Press, 2019.

Hall, Manly P. The Secret Teachings of All Ages. Radford, Wilder Publications, 2007.

Harrison, Gerald. Topic 10: Nietzsche. Palmerston North: School of Humanities, Massey University, 2020.

Lash, John Lamb. Not In His Image: Gnostic Vision, Sacred Ecology, and the Future of Belief. Vermont, Chelsea Green Publishing, 2006.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by R.J. Hollingdale. London, Penguin Classics, 2003.

Perry, Christopher. “The Shadow.” The Society of Analytical Psychology. Last revised August 12, 2015. https://www.thesap.org.uk/articles-on-jungian-psychology-2/about-analysis-and-therapy/the-shadow/

Plato. Gorgias. Translated by W.R.M. Lamb. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1967.

Raphael. “Raphael School of Athens.” Wikimedia Commons. Last revised June 3, 2007. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Raphael_School_of_Athens.jpg

Stokes, Philip. Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers. London, Capella, 2010.

Three Initiates. The Kybalion: A Study of The Hermetic Philosophy of Ancient Egypt and Greece. Las Vegas, Rough Draft Printing, 2012.