Manoeuvre warfare is the movement of forces to gain and keep the initiative over enemy forces while keeping them off balance. In his 1974 book The Art of Warfare on Land, David Chandler lists eight classical manoeuvres of warfare: penetration of the centre, attack in oblique order, single envelopment, double envelopment, attack from a defensive position, feigned retreat, indirect approach and hit-and-run. These manoeuvres can be further classified into four categories of two manoeuvres each: penetration, envelopment, defensive-offensive and turning movements, respectively. Each has advantages and disadvantages which may be more effective in some combat situations and less in others.
Penetration of the Centre
This manoeuvre is probably the oldest of the classical manoeuvres, dating back from the creation of established armies. Usually applied if flanks are protected by obstacles, such as rivers or mountains, it normally begins with secondary forces engaging the enemy wings to draw away enemy reserves towards these areas. Once this is achieved, the main force concentrates in the centre of the line before punching a hole through the opponent’s own line and exploiting this penetration with a reserve force. Some historical examples include the Battle of Blenheim (1704) and the Battle of France (1940). The advantages of this manoeuvre include encircling large parts of the split army or attacking his rear bases once the penetration has occurred. The disadvantages of this manoeuvre include the excessive weakening of the flanks to produce enough force in the centre and of the enemy making use of his exterior lines to rush aid towards the attempted penetration.
Attack in Oblique Order
First used at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE, this manoeuvre is best used if your army is outnumbered and flanks are protected by natural obstacles. It involves massing steadily increasing strength against one wing of the enemy army until it breaks, while smaller, secondary forces hold the enemy’s attention and stop the transfer of reserves towards the threatened flank. Some historical examples include the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) and the Battle of Leuthen (1757). The advantages of this manoeuvre are the ability to destroy an enemy’s organization and shatter their line while denying your own weakest point to attack. The disadvantage of this manoeuvre is that the attacker can run the risk of unbalancing his own forces and invite a decisive counterstroke from the enemy against their own weakest point.
Single Envelopment
Along with the Penetration of the Centre, this manoeuvre is one of the oldest and most frequently used. It involves making pinning attacks against the enemy’s front while a portion of an army’s forces are committed against one of the enemy army’s exposed flanks, rolling up their battle line towards its centre. Some historical examples include the Battle of Yarmuk (636) and the Battle of the Marne (1914). The advantages of this manoeuvre are the ability to totally disrupt an enemy army by cutting off its line of retreat and enveloping one of its flanks. The disadvantages of this manoeuvre are that the enemy can bring up its own reserves to meet this threat and that the building up of forces for a flanking attack can weaken an army’s centre, inviting a counterattack from the enemy.
Double Envelopment
This manoeuvre should only be attempted if an army has superior numbers or a general has exceptional skill. It involves making pinning attacks against the enemy centre while attacking both flanks to encircle the opposing army. Some historical examples include the Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) and the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43). The advantage of this manoeuvre is the potential of annihilating, or forcing the surrender of, the entire enemy army. The disadvantages of this manoeuvre are that enveloping both enemy flanks can lead to an over-extension of one’s forces, and unless the envelopment is strong enough, the enemy may be able to break out of the encirclement.
Attack from a Defensive Position
This manoeuvre is usually attempted if a direct offensive is not viable and an impenetrable defensive position is available. It involves a force occupying a strong, well-chosen defensive position (hills, field fortifications or settlements) and goads the enemy into attacking it. Once the enemy has exhausted itself in useless attacks against the perimeter, the defenders sally forth to defeat their opponent. Some historical examples include the Battle of Alesia (52 BCE) and the Battle of Panipat (1526). The advantage of this manoeuvre is that the switch from defensive to offensive can often produce decisive results. The disadvantages of this manoeuvre are that the defender may have to wait indefinitely for an attack that may never come, or the enemy may attack from an unexpected direction.
Feigned Retreat
This manoeuvre is often employed to tempt an enemy into an ambush or to abandon a defensive position. It often involves the centre withdrawing to draw the enemy into a pursuit, thereby exposing their flanks to attack. Once the enemy is in a pocket, the centre reverses and attacks the enemy force, surrounding it on three sides. Some historical examples include the Battle of Hastings (1066) and the Battle of Liegnitz (1241). The advantage of this manoeuvre is the powerful psychological impact of surprising and throwing the enemy off balance. The disadvantage of this manoeuvre is that unless the morale of the troops involved is extremely high, a feigned retreat can easily turn into a real retreat.
Indirect Approach
This manoeuvre is often attempted if a large, mobile force is available, and the enemy’s communication and supply lines are vulnerable. It involves distracting the enemy with secondary forces while the main force marches around the enemy’s flank to attack their forces in the rear, during which speed and timing are crucial to success. Some historical examples include the Battle of Ulm (1805) and the Battle of Gallipoli (1915). The advantage of this manoeuvre is that it forces the enemy to turn around and face the attacking force for fear of being cut off from its supply lines and line of retreat. The disadvantage of this manoeuvre is that if it is indulged in too rashly, an alert opponent can counter the implied threat by taking steps to thwart the outflanking move.
Hit-and-Run
This manoeuvre has become more popular since 1945 due to the lack of parity between modern armies and the psychological power it holds on people and their governments. It involves inflicting damage on an enemy and immediately exiting the area to avoid the enemy’s defence or retaliation. Some historical examples include the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 CE) and the Battle of Manzikert (1071). The advantage of this manoeuvre includes wearing down an enemy’s defences and morale while suffering minimal casualties yourself. The disadvantage of this manoeuvre is that forces that use it are almost completely ineffective using conventional tactics and thus are unable to defeat an enemy’s forces in a set-piece battle.
Bibliography
Chandler, David G. The Art of Warfare on Land. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 2000.
Englund, Chase. “A Brief History of Offensive Land Tactics in the West.” The Art of Battle. Accessed October 17, 2020. www.theartofbattle.com/a-brief-history-of-offensive-land-tactics-in-the-west/
Goodman, Ronald E.M. “Military Strategy and Tactics.” Molossian Naval Academy. Last revised 1993. www.molossia.org/milacademy/strategy.html
Webb, Jonathan. “Tactics Tutorial.” The Art of Battle. Accessed April 8, 2020. www.theartofbattle.com/tactics-tutorial/
Webmaster. “The Seven Basic Maneuvers of Warfare.” Digital Attic. Accessed March 15, 2020. www.digitalattic.org/home/war/maneuvers.php
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