In 208 CE, the Battle of Red Cliffs was fought between Cao Cao against Liu Bei and Sun Quan during the Three Kingdoms Period.
Why did it happen?
In 184 CE, a Taoist sect called the Yellow Turbans revolted against the declining Han dynasty. Although the revolt was crushed a year later, Han central authority was severely weakened, and after the death of Emperor Ling in 189 CE, China became divided among competing warlords. By 207 CE, all of northern China had been conquered by Prime Minister Cao Cao, who set his sights on the conquest of southern China, which Liu Bei and Sun Quan controlled. In October 208 CE, Cao Cao defeated Liu Bei at the Battle of Changban and captured a fleet of warships at Jiangling, intending to sail downstream towards Chaisang, where Sun Quan was based. Liu Bei fled to Chaisang, and while Sun Quan’s advisors advocated surrender, his military commander Zhou Yu argued that he should sail down the Yangtze River and confront Cao Cao in a naval battle. In November, Zhou Yu led Liu Bei and Sun Quan’s combined forces down the Yangtze River towards Chibi (Red Cliffs) to confront Cao Cao's fleet in battle.
Who was involved?
The forces of Cao Cao at Red Cliffs numbered 220,000 men. Of this number, 70,000 were part of the Navy, while 150,000 were part of the Army. Despite having a large force, Cao Cao’s soldiers were exhausted after a long, brutal campaign, with many unaccustomed to naval warfare. Moreover, Cao Cao’s soldiers were not used to the marshy environment of southern China; subsequently, disease ravaged their ranks. The forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan at Red Cliffs numbered 50,000 men: 20,000 under Liu Bei and 30,000 under Sun Quan. Despite being outnumbered four-to-one, the Allied forces had greater experience in naval warfare and, unlike Cao Cao’s forces, were fresh and eager to defend their homeland from invasion.
What happened?
As both sides sighted each other, the battle opened with their warship’s archers firing arrows at each other, which proved indecisive. Cao Cao and Zhou Yu then broke off the engagement and encamped on opposite banks of the Yangtze River. As disease spread in his army, Cao Cao ordered his warships to be chained together to provide a more stable platform for his troops. Zhou Yu ordered Huang Gai to sail 10 fireships loaded with dry reeds and inflammable wax into Cao Cao’s immobilised fleet, which set fire to most of his warships. With his remaining forces, Cao Cao ordered a retreat overland, but as his troops became bogged down by marshland, Liu Bei and Sun Quan’s forces pursued, turning the retreat into a full-scale rout.
What changed as a result?
The Battle of Red Cliffs was a decisive victory for Liu Bei and Sun Quan. In the aftermath of the battle, Cao Cao gave up trying to conquer southern China and became content with regional power in northern China. After Cao Cao died in 220 CE, his son Cao Pi succeeded him, with his domain becoming known as Cao Wei, Liu Bei’s becoming Shu Han and Sun Quan’s Dong Wu. As stated by Saul David, “The Three Kingdoms were destined to fight one another, because each aspired to rule the whole of China” (David, 2009, p.51). In 263 CE, Shu Han was conquered by Sima Yi of Cao Wei, who established the Jin Dynasty in 264 CE. Remembering the fate of Cao Cao at Red Cliffs, Sima Yi took the time to train his soldiers in naval warfare and acquired a fleet of warships for use against Dong Wu. In 280 CE, the Jin finally conquered Dong Wu, bringing the Three Kingdoms Period to a close.
Bibliography
David, Saul. War: The Definitive Visual History. New York, Dorling Kindersley, 2009.
Grant, R.G. Battle At Sea: 3,000 Years of Naval Warfare. New York, Dorling Kindersley, 2008.
Kerrigan, Michael. China: A Dark History. London, Amber Books, 2019.
Nut, Ling. “Battle of Red Cliffs 208 Extended Map.” Wikimedia Commons. Last revised January 12, 2022. www.commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Red_Cliffs_208_extended_map-en.svg