On 9 August 48 BCE, the Battle of Pharsalus was fought between Julius Caesar and Pompey during the Roman Civil Wars.
Why did it happen?
When the Gallic Wars ended in 51 BCE, Julius Caesar had the largest and most experienced army in the Roman world, while his rival Pompey’s best troops were based in Spain and out of commission. When Caesar entered northern Italy in January 49 BCE, his enemies in the Roman Senate tried to divest him of his command and refused to let him stand for consul. If he returned to Italy as a private citizen, he would face prosecution that would end his political career. Subsequently, Caesar decided to move into Italy with his army, beginning the Roman Civil Wars. Although he failed to intercept Pompey before he left for Greece, Caesar turned to Spain, where he defeated Pompey’s remaining veterans at the Battle of Ilerda. In July 48 BCE, Caesar was defeated by Pompey at the Battle of Dyrrachium and retreated into northern Greece. Pompey followed him and met Caesar on the plain of Pharsalus in Thessaly.
Who was involved?
The forces of Julius Caesar at Pharsalus numbered 22,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. The infantry was arrayed into three lines, most comprising veteran legionaries who had fought with Caesar in the Gallic Wars. Mark Antony led the left wing, Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus the centre, and Publius Sulla the right wing. Caesar commanded the cavalry and 3,000 legionaries on the right flank. He intended to use these six cohorts to defeat Pompey’s cavalry and attack his army in the flank while the infantry attacked from the front. The forces of Pompey at Pharsalus numbered 45,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry. Like Caesar’s army, Pompey's infantry was arrayed into three lines, with Lucius Domitus Ahenobarbus leading the left wing, Scipio the centre, and Afranius the right wing. The cavalry was arrayed on the left flank under Labienus and intended to use their superior numbers to defeat Caesar’s cavalry and attack his infantry in the flank and rear.
What happened?
Caesar’s forces under Mark Antony and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus began the battle by charging Pompey’s right wing and centre. Shortly after this, Pompey’s cavalry under Labienus charged Caesar’s cavalry, intending to attack his flank and rear. As Caesar’s cavalry was defeated, 3,000 legionaries behind them used their javelins as spears to drive Pompey’s cavalry from the battlefield. After defeating the cavalry, Caesar ordered his six cohorts to attack the left flank of Pompey’s infantry. Finally, Caesar ordered his third line of infantry to charge through the front two lines and deliver a shock frontal assault on Pompey’s legionaries. Under pressure, Pompey’s infantry broke and fled the battlefield, pursued by Caesar’s forces. While Caesar lost only 230 killed and 2,000 wounded, Pompey suffered 15,000 casualties.
What changed as a result?
The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive victory for Julius Caesar. In the aftermath of the battle, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered on the orders of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar followed and eventually helped Ptolemy’s sister, Cleopatra VII, gain the Egyptian throne before putting down a rebellion by Pharnaces II of Pontus in Anatolia. Caesar subsequently defeated Pompey’s remaining forces in North Africa at Thapsus (46 BCE) and in Spain at Munda (45 BCE) and declared himself dictator for life. This angered the Roman Senators Brutus and Cassius, who felt Caesar was acting too much like a king. Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BCE, which triggered another two rounds of civil war before Caesar’s adopted son Octavian restored the peace and declared himself emperor in 27 BCE. The Roman Empire would last in the west until 476 CE and in the east until 1453 CE.
Bibliography
Grant, R.G. Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. London, Dorling Kindersley, 2005.
LegionaryIX. “BattlePharsalus-LIX.” Wikimedia Commons. Last revised November 12, 2019. www.commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BattlePharsalus-LIX.png
Rodgers, Nigel. The History and Conquests of Ancient Rome. London, Hermes House, 2007.
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