On 2 September 31 BCE, the Battle of Actium was fought off the coast of Greece between Mark Antony and Octavian during the Roman Civil Wars.
Why did it happen?
After the deaths of Brutus and Cassius, the murderers of Julius Caesar, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE, Octavian and Mark Antony divided the Roman world between them: Octavian controlled the western half, while Antony received the eastern half. In 41 BCE, Antony met and fell in love with Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt at Tarsus before officially marrying her in 37 BCE. Unfortunately, Antony had already married Octavian’s sister, Octavia, and when Antony formerly divorced her in 32 BCE, Octavian declared war on him and Cleopatra. In 31 BCE, Octavian cornered the couple’s fleet of warships at Actium on the west coast of Greece. Under his capable admiral, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Octavian’s navy blockaded Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet in the Gulf of Ambracia, cutting their supply lines to Egypt. By August, Antony’s forces had been devastated by disease and desertion. With food supplies running low, Cleopatra suggested a naval breakout of Actium back to Egypt with as much of the army and treasure as possible. The breakout was planned for 29 August, but stormy weather postponed the operations until 2 September.
Who was involved?
Mark Antony’s navy at Actium numbered 230 warships: 170 quinqueremes and 60 Egyptian galleys. Quinqueremes were massive galleys that could hold 120 men and were equipped with wooden towers filled with archers and catapults. According to Plutarch, Mark Antony’s naval crew numbered 20,000 legionaries and 2,000 archers. Coelius commanded the left wing, Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, and Mark Antony and Lucius Gellius Publicola led the right wing. Positioned in reserve were the Egyptian galleys under Cleopatra herself. Octavian’s navy at Actium numbered 400 warships: 250 Liburnian galleys and 150 triremes. Although Octavian’s Liburnian galleys and triremes were smaller than Antony’s quinqueremes, they were much more manoeuvrable and capable of surrounding Antony’s vessels and setting them on fire with incendiary arrows. While Agrippa led the left wing, Octavian commanded the right wing with Lucius Arruntius and Marcus Lurius in the centre.
What happened?
At 12pm, as Antony’s left wing sailed against Octavian’s right wing, Octavian ordered his right wing to withdraw to lure Antony’s larger warships out into the sea where they could be surrounded and rammed. At the same time, Octavian’s left wing under Agrippa attempted to outflank Antony’s right wing, causing Antony and Publicola to extend their line to avoid encirclement. At 2pm, upon seeing a gap open within the centre and taking advantage of a north-westerly wind, Cleopatra sailed her 60 Egyptian galleys through the line back out into the open sea towards Egypt. Upon seeing her flight, Antony transferred from his flagship to a smaller vessel and chased after her, accompanied by 20 of his own warships. Antony’s remaining legionaries and sailors fought on for two more hours before surrendering at 4pm. The battle had been a disaster for Antony, with 5,000 killed and 150 warships sunk or captured.
What changed as a result?
The Battle of Actium was a decisive victory for Octavian. The following year, Octavian invaded Egypt but was repulsed by Antony on 31 July 30 BCE at the Battle of Alexandria. The following day, however, many of Antony’s troops deserted over to Octavian. Believing that Cleopatra had organised it, Antony was furious, and Cleopatra, fearing Antony’s wrath, sent a messenger telling him that she was dead. Believing the report, Antony said, “Why doest thou longer delay, Antony? Fortune has taken away thy sole remaining excuse for clinging to life” (Plut. Ant. 76.3). After stabbing himself, Antony was taken to Cleopatra’s tomb where he died in her arms. Cleopatra was subsequently captured by Octavian but committed suicide on 12 August when it was revealed that Octavian planned to parade her in his military triumph in Rome. Her last request was that she be buried in her own tomb next to her beloved Antony, which Octavian honoured. After annexing Egypt, Octavian returned to Rome in 29 BCE and declared himself Emperor in 27 BCE. Renamed Augustus, he ruled the Roman Empire until his death in 14 CE.
Bibliography
Grant, R.G. Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. London, Dorling Kindersley, 2005.
Grant, R.G. Battle At Sea: 3,000 Years of Naval Warfare. New York, Dorling Kindersley, 2008.
Plutarch. Life of Antony. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Cambridge, Loeb Classical Library, 1920.
Rodgers, Nigel. The History and Conquests of Ancient Rome. London, Hermes House, 2007.
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