It seems a simple story. At first glance, it appears to be a series of fantasy films set in an alternate prehistory where humans coexisted with dinosaurs. Hammer Studios produced four films in the genre between 1966 and 1971: One Million Years B.C., Prehistoric Women, When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth and Creatures the World Forgot. However, hidden behind the scantily clad cavewomen and stop-motion animated dinosaurs lies a deep understanding of our prehistory based on the worship of the Goddess. This essay will examine the symbolism found in Hammer’s tetralogy and its similarities with Cultural Transformation Theory as outlined in the works of feminist scholars like Riane Eisler and Marija Gimbutas.
Cultural Transformation Theory was first coined by Riane Eisler in her 1987 book, The Chalice and the Blade. According to Eisler, “underlying the great surface diversity of human culture are two basic models of society" (Eisler, 1987, p.xvii). These two models are what Eisler calls domination and partnership, with societies existing on either of these two models. The dominator social structure ranks one half of humanity over another, primarily through violence and control. In contrast, the partnership social structure is based on the principles of linking and equality centred around love and creativity. In One Million Years B.C., the Rock tribe is based around domination, with the strong taking everything, while the Shell tribe is centred around Partnership values involving peace and egalitarianism with a focus on the arts, learning and cooperation. It was fascinating to see these social structures portrayed two decades before Riane Eisler introduced them in The Chalice and the Blade.
One of the main tenets of Cultural Transformation Theory is that human societies were directed towards partnership, but following a period of cultural disruption, there occurred a fundamental shift towards domination systems. According to both Riane Eisler and Marija Gimbutas, this event occurred in real-world history between 4500 BCE and 3000 BCE when the Kurgans, or Indo-Europeans, invaded Old Europe and imposed their way of life upon the Neolithic Goddess cultures. As stated by Gimbutas, “These incursions disrupted the Old European sedentary farming lifestyle that had existed for three thousand years. As the Indo-European tribes encroached on Old Europe from the east, the continent underwent upheavals” (Gimbutas, 1999, p.52). It could even be argued that the Shell Tribe and Rock Tribe in One Million Years B.C. symbolise the Old Europeans and the Indo-Europeans, respectively, with the war that takes place during the film symbolising this conflict between these two social structures. As stated by Riane Eisler, “warfare was an essential instrument for replacing the partnership model with the dominator model” (Eisler, 1987, p.47). As we shall see, this struggle between partnership and domination will continue to play out over the next three films.
During the climax of One Million Years B.C., the war between the Shell and Rock Tribes is interrupted by a volcanic eruption and earthquake, which leads to the deaths of many members of both tribes. This event parallels a Native American myth regarding the beginnings of humanity. According to the Yakima tribe, as people grew in number, jealousy and greed caused conflict to break out, at which point:
“Mother Earth became so tired and angry at all the constant fighting she savagely shook the mountains. Large rocks rolled down the mountains, crushing many of the people and burying them. The remaining people knew that they had brought on the wrath of Mother Earth because of their fighting" (Mills, 2007, p.67).
All indigenous and Pagan peoples believe that Mother Earth protects the balance of life and does not participate in human conflict. In the Dharma Gaia, the Dalai Lama says, “The Earth, our Mother, is telling us to behave" (Lash, 2006, p.273). Under Tumak (John Richardson) and Loana (Raquel Welch), the remaining members of both tribes realise this and merge to form a new tribe and set out to find a new place to call home.
One of the most fascinating aspects of One Million Years B.C. and its sequel, When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, is the vocabulary spoken by the cavemen and women. Consisting of twenty-seven words, this fictional language was developed by Val Guest and took inspiration from both the historical languages of Sanskrit, Phoenician, and Latin and cave drawings, which date from 300,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE [For a full list of words, please refer to the Appendix at the end of this essay - BB]. As stated in the Caveman’s Dictionary for When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, “Drawings were found on the walls of ancient caves which symbolize the limited vocabulary. They indicate that touch and other physical contact played a most important part in personal communications” (Toby, 2017). According to Val Guest, he intended his screenplay to be “science-fact” as opposed to “science fiction” because evidence uncovered from the past permits the telling of “fact” films whereas science-fiction depends upon guesswork about the future” (Warner Bros, 1970, p.2). In my opinion, Val Guest and Hammer intended their films to be in the same vein as J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings: An imaginary, mythological retelling of Earth’s prehistory.
Another interesting element in One Million Years B.C. is the worldview of the Rock and Shell Tribes. The opening narration tells how “There are not many men yet. Just a few tribes scattered across the wilderness. Never venturing far, unaware that other tribes exist even. Too busy with their own lives to be curious. Too frightened of the unknown to wander” (Chaffey, 1966). This is very similar to the worldview of ancient, pre-Christian Europeans who believed they lived in the middle of the world surrounded by the enemies of the gods and humanity. According to Peter Sawyer, the Pagan worldview was based on a dimension running from near to distant with “its point of departure wherever people lived; the distance to the wilderness, whether in reality this was by the sea, the mountains, or the deep forests, implied a transition from the secure to the dangerous” (Sawyer, 2001, p.210-211). Ancient Europeans called the world outside of their own as the “world of the giants”, and it can be argued that the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles in One Million Years B.C. and When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth represent the giants.
If One Million Years B.C. outlined the basic principles of Cultural Transformation Theory, the next film chronologically in the series, When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, is the story of the rise of the divine feminine and its “struggle” with the solar, masculine principle. Taking place a few generations after the events of One Million Years B.C., we are introduced to the Rock Tribe, which now lives in the mountains above the ocean. They are sun worshippers who fear that “the sun should leave him, leave him alone in everlasting darkness. A time when the colour of a woman’s hair condemned her to be sacrificed to the sun” (Guest, 1970). Next to the worship of the goddess, sun worship is one of the oldest forms of religious belief, dating back tens of thousands of years [According to the pressbook for When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, Victoria Vetri became a sun worshipper after learning that the Sun is considered a masculine symbol in Astrology and Mythology - BB]. According to Lara Atwood, “what people were venerating however, was not the sun itself, but the divine manifesting through it, as the greatest visible source of light and life in creation” (Atwood, 2021, p.335). Esoteric traditions like alchemy and astrology say that the sun symbolises vitality and consciousness but can cause pride and self-centeredness if overemphasised.
In the opening narration of When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, the narrator states that there was no moon yet. While the sun is perceived as masculine in esoteric traditions, the moon is perceived as feminine, ruling emotions, sensuality, how we feel and women’s menstrual cycles. As stated by Francis Melville, “Everything that grows upon the earth does so in rhythm with the Moon” (Melville, 2002, p.92). At the film’s climax, the Moon goddess reacts to the separation of the lovers, Sanna and Tara, by cleansing the land with a great tsunami that destroys most of the Rock and Sand Tribes. As stated by Marija Gimbutas in Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe, “She was giver of life and all that promotes fertility, and at the same time she was the wielder of the destructive powers of nature” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.152). This event seems to bring about the end of the age when humans and dinosaurs coinhabit the earth, for dinosaurs are subsequently absent in the next two films, Creatures the World Forgot and Prehistoric Women.
At this point, it is worth mentioning more about the symbolism Neolithic people used to represent the goddess. There are two things that we should be aware of. First, the Neolithic artist’s reality was not physical, meaning that supernatural powers were conceived as hybrid figures and animals, producing a symbolic, conceptual art not given to physical naturalism. In other words, “The primary purpose was to transform and spiritualize the body and to surpass the elementary and corporeal” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.38). Second, in Neolithic societies, while women had a greater role than in later patriarchal cultures, there was no inequality between men and women. As stated by Marija Gimbutas, “Both principles were manifest side by side…Neither is subordinate to the other; by complementing one another, their power is doubled” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.237). The unifying theme underlying Neolithic civilization in Europe and the Middle East was the worship of the goddess as the source and regenerator of all life.
Although various animals were used in Neolithic art to symbolise the goddess, the bird and snake were the two most common forms she took. In One Million Years B.C., When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth and Creatures the World Forgot, snakes and birds often appear at certain parts of the films to influence certain outcomes. In the opening scene of One Million Years B.C., a python and vulture are seen while Akhoba is hunting a warthog. In When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, a python spares Sanna’s life as Kingsor’s men look for her in the jungle with a flock of vultures appearing after a Chasmosaurus gores Kane. Finally, in Creatures the World Forgot, a python appears during the final struggle between Toomak and Nool and attempts to catch Nala (Julie Ege) in its grasp. Marija Gimbutas said, “The snake, like the bird, was a form in which the goddess became manifest” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.146). According to Riane Eisler, the vulture was linked “with the return of life to the Goddess’s womb after death” (Eisler, 1996, p.64), while the snake was seen as “another symbol of her powers of regeneration” (Eisler, 1987, p.18). Marija Gimbutas says that both the Snake and Bird Goddess “create the world, charge it with energy, and nourish the earth and its creatures with the life-giving element conceived as water” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.236). Other epiphanies of the Goddess include pigs, goats, spiders, leopards, fish, deer, and bears.
One scene in When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth is particularly rich in symbolism. This is the scene where Sanna (Victoria Vetri) spends the night in the broken egg of a Rhedosaurus during a rainstorm [The Rhedosaurus is a fictional dinosaur that first appeared in the 1953 film, The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms - BB]. The following morning, the mother dinosaur appears with a deer she has caught and adopts the cavewoman as one of her offspring. This scene encompasses several mythological motifs, particularly the cosmic egg and the deer. The primordial egg is found in many ancient mythologies – such as Egypt, Babylon, Greece, and India – and is a metaphor for potentiality and duality manifest in the creation of the universe. This is expressed at the film’s beginning by the narrator, who proclaims, “A time of beginnings, of darkness, of light, of the Sun, the Earth, the sea, of man! The beginnings of man living with man, by the sea, in the mountains. The beginning of love, hate, and fear” (Guest, 1970). The cosmic egg was associated with water, the universal creative force, while the deer was a double for the Goddess of Regeneration, who “often incarnated in these forms to assist with the birthing and nursing of the young” (Gimbutas, 1999, p.12). In summary, this scene symbolises the Palaeolithic origins of the cosmogonical ideas centring around water, eggs, deer, and women.
Also of symbolic importance is the character of Tara (Robin Hawdon), who rescues and falls in love with Sanna. Although Tara is portrayed by a man in the film, his character is named after a Tibetan goddess. In The Golden Rosary of Tara, the goddess Tara is asked to incarnate as a man to achieve enlightenment, only to decline this offer, saying, “I shall remain in the precious body of a woman, working ceaselessly for the benefit of all beings" (Rose, 2002, p.251). In Buddhism, Tara is the supreme source of sustenance that saves people from physical and spiritual danger. In When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, the divine feminine manifests through a man to care for and protect Sanna from the world's dangers, including the patriarchal Rock Tribe. This may sound unusual, but as The Kybalion states, “Gender is in everything; everything has its Masculine and Feminine Principles; Gender manifests on all planes" (Three Initiates, 2012, p.21). In other words, Tara, the man, becomes a conduit for the love and compassion of the Goddess.
Although she was overwhelmingly prominent in Palaeolithic and Neolithic religions, the Goddess was not the only deity worshipped by our ancient ancestors. The people of Old Europe also revered the Year-God, which would later become the basis for Dionysus of Ancient Greece. As the Goddess manifested as various animals, “the male god’s principal epiphany was in the form of a bull” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.224) representing “a male stimulating principle in nature without whose influence nothing would grow or thrive” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.216). This symbolism can be traced back to the early agricultural era when the Vegetation Goddess was born, and the first herds of goats and cattle existed. Both the bull and ram would play a prominent part in the religion of Neolithic Europe during the seventh millennium BCE. In Creatures the World Forgot, we see Nool and Toomak’s tribe beginning to herd and domesticate goats and cattle after the death of their father, Mak. However, following a ritualised fight to decide the leadership of the tribe, Toomak takes half of the tribe with him, and Nool’s tribe soon depletes their goat and cattle herds, causing him to seek revenge and track down his brother.
In One Million Years B.C. and Prehistoric Women, two men wear the skins of a bear and a bull while performing a ritual. This ceremony is likely a reference to the sacred marriage (hieros gamos) practised in ancient times, with the bull representing the year god and the bear representing the Goddess as mother and nurse. As explained by Marija Gimbutas, “Although peculiar by modern standards, in both Europe and the Near East, ancient peoples considered this sacred male and female coupling necessary for the well-being and fertility of the land and its inhabitants” (Gimbutas, 1999, p.18). It is also a water-invocation ritual, for the Goddess was seen as a “divinity who nurtures the world with moisture, giving rain, the divine food which metaphorically was also understood as mother’s milk” (Gimbutas, 2007, p.142). In Creatures the World Forgot, a similar ritual appears with an ecstatic dancer representing the vegetation goddess and the virgin bride being carried to the scene on the back of a fish carving, representing fertility and regeneration.
This brings us to one of the more overt themes in Hammer’s film series: sex. Although today we associate it with lust and pornography, sex was viewed in Prehistoric times as a sacred act that brought forth new life and spiritual ecstasy. In Sacred Pleasure, Riane Eisler states that it is “highly possible that there were in our prehistory sacred erotic rites…in which the union of female and male, or man and woman, was celebrated as an epiphany or sacred manifestation of the mysterious powers that give and sustain life” (Eisler, 1996, p.56). In When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, this sacred act was enacted by Sanna and Tara inside a cave, a setting that represents the Goddess's womb. Victoria Vetri explained that in the film, “There are tender scenes which show that even early men and women had the ability to express finer emotions” (Warner Bros, 1970, p.2). Indeed, Val Guest stated that he intended his screenplay to be the equivalent of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, only with a much happier ending (Warner Bros, 1970, p.3).
By the time of the next film chronologically in the series, Creatures the World Forgot, the setting has shifted to several tribes living further inland with no dinosaurs present to interact with the cavepeople. While the dominator social structure is still present, focused on the story of two brothers fighting for leadership of the tribe, the presence of the Old Crone adds an interesting insight into the development of the saga’s mythology. Both ancient and modern Pagans taught that the Goddess has three aspects: Maiden, Mother and Crone, representing youth and puberty, parenthood and maturity, and old age and wisdom, respectively. According to D.J. Conway, “It appears from the study of mythology and ancient cultures that the characteristics of the Triple Goddess may have been first recognized in the Moon and its phases as a simple way to help humans understand an abstract entity” (Conway, 2001, p.4). This fits in with what I stated earlier about the Moon being feminine and ruling the emotions and the cycles of nature, with the Crone representing death, dissolution, and the beginning of a new cycle.
In addition to this archetype, the Old Crone takes one of the lead female characters (with the unfortunate name of “Dumb Girl”) under her wing, influencing the outcome of the power struggle between Toomak and Rool. While it would be taking it too far to suggest that the relationship between the two is based on partnership values, we see the beginnings of what mystics have called the Sacred Women’s Mysteries. According to Sharron Rose, women in pre-patriarchal societies developed a set of teachings that were passed down from mother to daughter, teacher to student, regarding their role in maintaining the psychic-energetic-emotional landscape of society. In other words, they knew that every thought and action had a powerful impact on their lives and those of their men and children. As stated by Sharron Rose, “In their crucial roles as the mothers, caretakers, visionaries, and peacekeepers, these wise and loving women knew that it was their fundamental task to maintain harmony and balance within their community and the larger world” (Rose, 2023). Later, in ancient Egypt and India, women developed yogic practices to purify their bodies and minds to transform into living embodiments of the Great Goddess herself.
Another important role of the Sacred Women’s Mysteries was the appointment and anointing of a sacred king who would lead the tribe. According to John Lamb Lash, in pre-patriarchal societies, “the sacred king was anointed by a woman, a priestess who represented the Goddess, the original “power behind the throne" (Lash, 2006, p.63-64). In Creatures the World Forgot, Mak is anointed by the Old Crone after a successful hunt and later marries a woman of another tribe after an earthquake destroys their home. According to John Lash, the anointing ritual was the hieros gamos, which guaranteed that the sacred king was “courageous but tender, a noble and innocent man who could surrender to a woman in the most intimate act of human contact" (Lash, 2006, p.245). Women also held councils in pre-patriarchal times to monitor and discuss the maintenance of the psychic-energetic-emotional equilibrium of the tribe. These councils survived into historical times, with Australian Aboriginal women being taught the initiations, ceremonies, and practices of the Sacred Mysteries. As stated by Sharron Rose, “Aboriginal women, who still preserve their ancient rites, gather together to discuss the emotional milieu of the tribe and what action to take in the case of group disequilibrium" (Rose, 2002, p.155). This ranges from soothing a man in distress to teaching children appropriate behaviour. Whatever the case, women found ways to restore balance and harmony within the tribe and the larger world.
The outcome of the power struggle between Toomak and Nool is decided by the Old Crone, who crafts two figurines of Toomak and Nool and uses her apprentice to decide their fates in the physical world. In Europe and the Near East, more than 100,000 figurines have been discovered by archaeologists dating from the Palaeolithic and Neolithic. According to Marija Gimbutas, most of these figurines were offerings to the Goddess, while “Their makers often etched them with sacred symbols in the form of facial markings, geometric designs, and signs that may have been a form of script" (Gimbutas, 1999, p.4). In ancient Greece, they were associated with the cult of the goddess Artemis, who was the spinner of the thread of life and was imbued with magical power. In the end, Nool’s death is decided by the Old Crone, and the film ends with an image of the sun shining behind her. In the Hopi creation myth, the Spider Grandmother, or Earth Goddess, takes over from the Sun God Tawa and teaches humans the religious and ceremonial practices they should follow (CG DAHLIN, 2020). In other words, the feminine takes a more active role over the masculine in human society.
The death of Nool in Creatures the World Forgot by the Old Crone and her apprentice seems to usher in a period in which matriarchy, or rule by women over men, predominates. In the fourth and final film in Hammer’s saga, Prehistoric Women, we see toxic femininity’s effects on both women and men. According to Sean Galla, examples of toxic femininity include:
“Talking over other people and belittling others, especially fellow women. Making fun of another female to get the attention of a man. Shaming men for being too soft or having feminine traits that do not live up to societal expectations of what a man is” (Galla, 2023).
These are all traits that Martine Beswick’s character Kari displays in Prehistoric Women. She dominates the blonde women she has enslaved, making them dance before her and eat their food on the ground. At one point in the film, Kari tells David Marchant (Michael Latimer) that cruelty has made her cruel, reflecting the cycle of abuse that stems from domination. As stated by Catherine Keller, “Over and over again we see the causing of pain – destructiveness and abuse – flow out of a prior wounding” (Lash, 2006, p.18). In Not In His Image, John Lamb Lash calls this condition the “victim-perpetrator bond” and says it began with the rise of patriarchy around 4500 BCE when partnership societies in Europe and the Near East were violently disrupted.
An important theme that unites all the plot elements in Prehistoric Women is the White Rhinoceros. In the film, David Marchant is captured by the Kanaka tribe and sentenced to death for disturbing the spirit of the White Rhinoceros, only to be transported one million years ago after touching the rhinoceros’ horn. According to Bernadette King, mystics and shamans viewed the rhinoceros horn as a symbol of spiritual awareness and connection to the divine. She also says, "seeing a Rhino in your visions means opening a path through the veils of uncertainty and bewilderment and stepping into the Light of awareness to become an awakened being” (King, 2023). In the film, the Kanaka say their ancestors hunted the White Rhinoceros to extinction before erecting the false idol to convince the other tribes that it still existed. This offended the gods, who placed the Kanaka in spiritual bondage until the false idol was destroyed. According to John Lamb Lash, the Gnostics called the replication of nature in lifeless form HAL (Coptic for “simulation”) and stated, “In the shift from organic form to abstraction an entire range of values is lost and other values contrary to organic life are adopted as if they were equal, or even superior to, the lost values” (Lash, 2006, p.230). Lash states in Sophia Returning that the first non-adaptive behaviour that really upset human relations was male domination and the breaking and denial of the symbiotic bond between men and women. Indeed, he concludes the film by saying “That was the bond that was broken at the beginning of our journey into insanity" (Weidner, 2009).
One of the most important scenes in Prehistoric Women is when David enters Kari’s throne room and refuses her, saying he is sickened by her cruelty. When Kari asks whether a woman should be subservient to a man, David says no and suggests gender equality as the best alternative. However, when David suggests that Kari abandon her cruel regime, she rejects his proposal and says, “You see, already you want to impose your will. You want to dominate me. I would be a fool to let any man do that again” (Carreras, 1967). This scene outlines an important, underlying principle of Cultural Transformation Theory that many people get confused about: patriarchy and matriarchy are both dominator social structures with gender roles reversed. As stated by Riane Eisler, “The opposite of patriarchy is not matriarchy. The opposite of patriarchy is Partnership” (Center for Partnership Systems, 2022). Indeed, David’s love interest, Saria (Edina Ronay), states, “We must think of the men not as enemies but as friends, then together you will conquer. It is the only way” (Carreras, 1967). This is a direct reference to Partnership.
Finally, one must overcome another hurdle if we are to understand Cultural Transformation Theory. When the first Goddess-worshipping societies were discovered in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it was generally assumed that they were matriarchal rather than patriarchal. In other words, women must have dominated men if men did not dominate women. However, when the archaeological evidence did not support this conclusion, it was assumed that male domination must have always been the norm. Yet the evidence and theories of Riane Eisler in The Chalice and the Blade support a third conclusion: that while the feminine was seen as of greater importance than the masculine, prehistoric societies were based on equality between women and men. As stated by Eisler, “All the imagery reflects the markedly different attitudes prevailing in the Neolithic about the relationship between women and men – attitudes in which linking rather than ranking appears to have been predominant” (Eisler, 1987, p.27). This is the society brought about at the end of Prehistoric Women: that of the triumph of Partnership over Domination during the struggle for our future one million years ago.
At first glance, One Million Years B.C. and its three sequels appear to be nothing but fantasy films about an alternate prehistory where men, women and dinosaurs coexisted. However, hidden behind the special effects and revealing costumes lies a profound understanding of our prehistoric ancestors and the struggle between partnership and domination. In these films, we see the symbolism our ancient ancestors used to describe the world of the Goddess: A world deeply connected to the natural and supernatural world. Ultimately, these films and the works of Riane Eisler and Marija Gimbutas offer an alternative view of our past that tells us where we came from and where we are going.
Appendix: Caveman's Dictionary
In both One Million Years B.C. and When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, the men and women of the Rock, Shell and Sand Tribes use their own prehistoric vocabulary to communicate with each other. The following dictionary of words and phrases is derived from the posters for When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth hung up in US theatre lobbies in 1970.
Akhoba: Help, mercy, forgive, greetings, so be it.
Akita: Here, there, look, see.
Cura: Boats, craft.
Kayera: Stand by, on guard, take care.
Krasta: Faster, quickly, continue.
Mata: Dead.
M’dana: Tomorrow, in the future.
M’kan: Kill.
N’dino: To make amends, to repair, to do penance.
N’dye: Come on! They’re coming! Coming!
Neecha: Stop, come back.
Neecro: Bad, evil.
N’to: No, negative, nothing.
Oonaya: Moon, moon god.
Osor: Dinosaur.
Preto: Thank you, thanks.
Saad: Lift up, raise, higher up, up.
Salta: Sea, water.
T’ammo: Yes, positive.
Tedak: Pterodactyl.
Udala: Them, you, yours, all of you.
Udela: Us, me, mine.
Unsaya: Sun, sun god.
Yappasha: The same, do this, copy me.
Yo kita: Go there, go.
Wandi: What, where, where are you?
Zak: Gone.
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